A Ton of Crap Read Free

have a wider vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, influenced by the various languages of the time.
LESSON 1E
MESOPOTAMIA AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
    The Hittites No one knows the origins of the Hittites, and until recently, their language was undecipherable (it was in the Indo-European family). Their invasion brought the end of the Old Babylonian Empire; however, as they conquered Mesopotamia, they adopted the laws, literature, and religion of Old Babylon. The Hittites are most notable for their work involved in trade and commerce, which spread Mesopotamian literature and thought all over the Mediterranean.
PUNCTUATION
    The Colon A colon is used if one wishes to emphasize the second clause when writing two independent clauses. For example, “The time had passed: his date never showed up.” A colon can also be used when introducing a list, a quotation, an appositive (in which two phrases are placed next to each other, with one serving to define or change the other), or another idea related to the independent clause.
NUMBERS
    Arabic Numerals Arabic numerals were developed in India in a.d. 600, and it is the current system we have today. However, until a.d. 952, these numerals were actually written backward. In a.d. 952, this system was brought to Europe and the numerals were flipped. The shape of the numerals is actually derived from the number of angles in the shape of the number. The numeral 1 has one angle, the numeral 2 has two angles, and so on.
EVOLUTION
    Genetic Drift Another important aspect of evolution is genetic drift. However, unlike natural selection, genetic drift does not allow for adaptations. Rather, genetic drift is by chance. In every generation of an organism, chance plays a key part in who lives and who dies. Some individuals may leave behind more descendents than others, meaning the genes of these organisms will be passed on. The genes will pass on simply because of luck, and not because of a genetic advantage.
LATIN
    Renaissance Latin Similar to how the Renaissance in Italy placed emphasis on a return to Classicism, the Latin at this time was used to purge the language of the changes made from Medieval Latin. People wished to return to the language that was used in the Golden Age of Latin Literature during the Roman Empire. The humanists’ efforts were successful in education, but ultimately, this wish to return to Classicism would lead to the extinction of the language.
LESSON 1F
MESOPOTAMIA AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
    Inventions Many important inventions came out of Mesopotamia. The seeder plow was revolutionary in agriculture and allowed seeding and plowing to occur simultaneously. The people of Mesopotamia also created a writing system based on images called cuneiform, developed irrigation and sanitation methods, created glass, and around 3500 b.c., invented the wheel. They were also the first to harness wind energy by creating sails.
PUNCTUATION
    The Dash An em dash is used to place emphasis on or set content apart from the rest of the text. Named because it is the width of an
M
, this dash is longer and places more importance on text than parentheses do. For example, “A lot of people were in the crowd—Tom and Scott among them.” The en dash, which is the width of an
N
, is shorter and is used to indicate a span of values between two numbers. For example, “For ages 3–5.”
NUMBERS
    Real Numbers Real numbers are whole numbers, such as 1, 2, 3, etc. Rational and irrational numbers as well as positive and negative numbers are also real numbers. Real numbers get the name “real” because they are not “imaginary.” An imaginary number is any number that becomes negative when squared. Imaginary numbers were at one time believed to be impossible, but are actually useful in calculating things such as electricity.
EVOLUTION
    Mutation Mutation is the last crucial part to evolution. Natural selection and genetic drift explain why organisms change, but they don’t necessarily explain how. A